changed sides to become violently anti-Soviet. What were practiced were hybrid forms of socialism, including some that eclectically borrowed from Marxist-Leninist and Maoist theory. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!: Reagans Berlin Speech, https://www.britannica.com/event/Cold-War, The National WWII Museum New Orleans - Cold Conflict, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum - The Cold War, Cold War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Cold War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up), China rips new US House committee on countering Beijing, Russia's sports exile persists 1 year after invading Ukraine, Norway official who spied for the Soviets has died in Moscow, 'It just rang': In crises, US-China hotline goes unanswered, helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954). Angola is a country in southwest Africa. Socialism in Sub-Sahara Africa: A New Assessment. [23], Soviet foreign policy in Somalia and Ethiopia was based on the Horn of Africa's strategic location for international trade and shipping as well as its military importance. Within a week, the country dissolved into anarchy after the army mutinied. By the mid-1980s, the communist powerhouse was facing an economic crisis, losing a war in Afghanistan and overstretched in Africa. It meant a return to the Cold War. under Major Ngouabi. The communist governments of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union collapsed between 1989 and 1991. Spread of Communism Birth of the USA American Constitution American Independence War Causes of the American Revolution Democratic Republican Party General Thomas Gage biography Intolerable Acts Loyalists Powers of the President Quebec Act Seven Years' War Stamp Act Tea Party Cold War Battle of Dien Bien Phu Brezhnev Doctrine Brezhnev Era In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. Under the glare of international public opinion, colonial rule could be justified only through economic aid to uplift the natives, and this would add to the financial burden on the metropoles. [14], In a complex civil war with outside interventions, Soviet military aid went to the Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (MPLA). ", Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University, Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (MPLA), "Mubarak set for talks at Kremlin on nuclear and arms trade", William E. Farrell, "Envoy of Moscow Expelled by Egypt". In the event, Reagan did not need to commit his country to support South Africas last stand; events inside the Soviet Union were now dictating the outcome of the Cold War in Africa. Why was the Cuban missile crisis such an important event in the Cold War? Meanwhile, Japan and certain Western countries were becoming more economically independent. Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics. Communist parties in these colonies were constantly under pressure by either the colonial government or a white-dominated regime. Their main aim was not socialist revolution, but to be free of military aggression from South Africa and see independence with majority rule throughout the continent. War in Vietnam (1945-46) September 13, 1945. This award-winning book provides a useful framework for analyzing various forms of socialist ideologies and institutional choice in Africa from the 1960s to the 1980s. But for many leaders, it made more sense to evolve an [31], The South African Communist Party (SACP), operating under the direction of the Comintern, was a strong supporter of the African National Congress. It also involves a rejection of the free market and the private ownership of property. In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. By 1959 the US state department was convinced that democratic Africa was fragile and prepared to embrace authoritarian but reliable alternatives. Under pressure from independence movements . There was no great Soviet strategy for taking over Africa, and generally the Soviet Union was under informed about history, political structures and the needs of the countries it supported. The upshot was that the countrys resources remained an asset of the west, and the DRC endured five years of civil war. Maxim Matusevich, "Revisiting the Soviet Moment in Sub-Saharan Africa" History Compass. Thus, the Soviet Union sent troops to preserve communist rule in East Germany (1953), Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968), and Afghanistan (1979). US empathy for the colonized faced two constraints that were most significant when their struggle was violent: the colonial powers were Americas allies against the Soviet Union, and Washington insisted that independence movements be free of the Communist virus. Second it wanted to gain a voice in African affairs, primarily by supporting local communist parties, and providing economic and military aid to the governments. On the other hand, both ideology and realpolitik led the Soviet Union to support those who fought for independence. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. This page was last edited on 29 January 2023, at 09:44. In the late 1970s, Cold War confrontations really flared in southern Africa, but also picked up steam in the Americas. driving the others to use guerilla tactics to resist communist rule. Neither Britain nor France would acknowledge their weaknesses. Communism is a particular form of socialism. The success of International Communism in gaining nine stooge states in Africa by the beginning of 1967 is near spectacular if two factors are borne in mind. After 1962, it fought hard to prevent communist China from developing its own countervailing presence. The onset of the Algerian War of Independence in November 1954 was an important development in the international history of the Cold War. If African movements and parties after independence allied themselves with the United States, China, or the Soviet Union, they were labeled as either capitalist or communist (Young 1982, Idahosa 2004, Rosberg and Callaghy 1979, Friedland and Rosberg 1964). Welcome to Foreign Policy 's China Brief. Here we are one year after Russia's blood-drenched invasion of Ukraine, the country that has always been the leading tripwire for a global nuclear war in the post-Soviet era. Orwell understood it as a nuclear stalemate between super-states: each possessed weapons of mass destruction and was capable of annihilating the other. The level of ideological commitment or interest in socialist doctrine varied among all the different governments and movements which received Soviet military aid. In 1986 Gorbachev rejected the idea of a revolutionary takeover of the South African government, and advocated a negotiated settlement. Weaver, Harold. Somalia appeared to be on the brink of victory after gaining control of 90% of the area. It is argued that populist thinkers Nyerere, Cabral, and Fanon shared a common passion for a brand of socialism that was democratic and rooted in precolonial traditions as well as in Marxist-Leninist theory. In this they were discreetly supported by most of Western Europe and America. He was responding to events in the Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, DRC) in 1960 following the withdrawal of the Belgians, who had enriched themselves on their colonys mineral resources and neglected the welfare of their subjects: on independence day, 30 June 1960, the Congo had perhaps just 200 African graduates. & Leaders. Listen The Kremlin developed four major long-term policy goals: At no time was Moscow willing to engage in combat in Africa, although its ally Cuba did so. [10], As early as the 1930s, the Algerian Communist Party made up an important faction of the Algerian nationalist movement; however it supported France in the growing unrest, and was forced to dissolve in 1956. Southeast Asia. [19] During the Nasser years, many young Egyptians studied in Soviet universities and military schools. in Africa. In this period the Soviets unsuccessfully blockaded the Western-held sectors of West Berlin (194849); the United States and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe (1949); the Soviets exploded their first atomic warhead (1949), thus ending the American monopoly on the atomic bomb; the Chinese communists came to power in mainland China (1949); and the Soviet-supported communist government of North Korea invaded U.S.-supported South Korea in 1950, setting off an indecisive Korean War that lasted until 1953. During this trip he famously, The Soviet Union, too, played an important role in the development of African cinema, training. Japan. Why US foreign policy was more violent in south America or east Asia than in Europe during the cold war ? Red Africa: From a generation of cinematographers to the end of apartheid Africa, Cuba and the Soviet Union. Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University was established in Moscow in 1960 to provide higher education to students from developing countries. communism was very attractive to people in a region where mineral and The Nixon administration was working behind the scenes with Sadat to bolster his plans to send the Russians home, which they did in July 1972. Historically, communism on the continent was strongest in Egypt, Sudan, Algeria, and South Africa, which had significant European settlement, but such ideas remained foreign to the African masses until the principles of Marxism-Leninism became popular among intellectuals around the time of World War I (Drew 2014). However, nowhere on the continent was a strict form of communism ever practiced. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (its Portuguese name abbreviated to MPLA), led by Agostinho Neto who became the newly independent nations first president, was backed by the Soviet Union which, in return, was allowed to establish a naval base at the countrys capital, Luanda. In 1961, the ANC and the SACP created a joint military wing, known as the "Spear of the Nation." [7], Stalin thought in terms of a black and white world of class conflict, capitalists versus the proletariat. There was a sense of freedom, of liberation, as palpable in the streets as in the Mozambicans we met, remembers anthropologist Nadine Wanono, then a student of French cultural ethnographer, Jean Rouch, with whom she travelled to Mozambique in 1978, to teach Super 8 film techniques to FRELIMOs post-independence government. In 1948 President Vincent Auriol reminded Algerians that their country was never a state; you were rescued from slavery as well as tribes fighting each other. As Soviet and American patronage (and arms) spread across the continent, Nyerere warned that a second scramble for Africa by Russia and its satellites was under way. France, too, prevaricated. March 30, 1946. By 1963 Guinea had shifted away from Moscow into a closer friendship with Washington. The confrontation that followed, known as the Cuban missile crisis, brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles. Angolas civil war, which did not end until 2002. Key words: Africa, Cold War, colonialism, USA, USSR, foreign policy, poli tics By 1969 President Julius Nyerere, a self-declared African socialist, had accepted equipment worth over US$640,000 from the US for his police force, all of whom were members of the ruling Tanganyika African National Union Party. ", Yahia Zoubir, "Soviet policy toward the Western Sahara conflict. Still, after the crisis, the Soviets were determined not to be humiliated by their military inferiority again, and they began a buildup of conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years. Communist regimes began to collapse in eastern Europe, and democratic governments rose in East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, followed by the reunification of West and East Germany under NATO auspices. However, the Kremlin was reluctant to send Soviet troops because of its fear of a major escalation with NATO powers. This sparked the Cuban missile crisis (1962), a confrontation that brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles. African elites who were exposed to socialist ideas either in the workplace or through the writings of theorists such as Karl Marx and V.I. Lenin and were attracted by the notions of social equality, mutual respect, and the sharing of labor. Infuriated by Soviet support for the Ethiopians, Somalia annulled its treaty with the Soviet Union and expelled all Soviet advisors in the country. Washington followed suit. UNION. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. At this point, the United States was in a quandary. Algeria became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and largely targeted its rhetoric towards the United States, rather than France. Throughout the ferocious Algerian War of Independence in the 1950s, Moscow provided military, technical and material assistance to the FLN, and trained hundreds of its military leaders in the USSR. But the significance of this in domestic politics was only felt after the Second World War.After 1945, Africa became caught up in the confrontation between America and the Soviet Union, the so-called Cold War. It is easy to romanticise the historic friendships that the USSR, Cuba and Yugoslavia offered African liberation movements and governments, as Calvert 22s Red Africa season seems to, especially with so much information about the era still locked in archives. He still remembers the schools amphitheatre, where film screenings were held. The term was first used by the English writer George Orwell in an article published in 1945 to refer to what he predicted would be a nuclear stalemate between two or three monstrous super-states, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds. It was first used in the United States by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch in a speech at the State House in Columbia, South Carolina, in 1947. In other places, such as Madagascar, Benin, Congo-Brazzaville, and Zimbabwe, leaders of independent regimes merely claimed to be Marxist-Leninist, without usually developing policies consistent with a firm commitment to a particular ideological or institutional persuasion. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. From 1955, the Soviet Union poured modern warplanes and weaponry into Egypt, which Nasser deployed in clashes with Israel. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba threatened the nationalisation of foreign businesses, and looked to the Soviet Union for assistance. [18], In the 1950s, Gamal Abdel Nasser began to follow an anti-imperialist policy that earned him enthusiastic support from the Communist government of the USSR. South Africa was also, as US President Ronald Reagan remarked in 1981, essential to the free world in its production of minerals we all must have. At the same time, what they liked about Soviet-style socialism was not so much the notion of a proletarian revolution, but rather of the need for the role a disciplined vanguard party. Why not here?. 1950s / Cold War. Gabriel Garcia Marquez later wrote: In that fleeting, anonymous passage through Africa, Che Guevara was to sow a seed that no one will destroy.. Moscow extended $100 million and credits to buy Soviet exports, while China provided $50 million in credits. [27] Suddenly, the Ethiopians launched a counter offensive with the help of newly arrived Soviet arms and a South Yemeni brigade. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Lawrence James explores the efforts of the United States and Soviet Union to secure influence across the post-colonial continent. Following a coup in 1965, he stayed in power until 1997 and amassed a personal fortune estimated at several billion US dollars by siphoning off the nations wealth. The West was willing to turn a blind eye to institutionalised racism and minority rule government, if that meant keeping commercial and mining investments safe from nationalisation. [30] In this context, King Hassan II of Morocco said in 1980 that Morocco and the Soviet Union are "at war". It highlights the impact of the Cold War on their growth and policy performance. [2] In the Comintern, the chief spokesmen for Africa were whites from the Communist Party of South Africa. [21][22] Relations were reestablished under president Hosni Mubarak in 1984, and Alexander Belonogov became the Ambassador. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. 2d ed. To gain a lasting presence on the continent. The Cold War can be seen as the period, from 1945 to 1991, of intense struggle for ideological supremacy between capitalist forces led by the USA and the forces of communism spearheaded by the USSR. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. The CIA wrote off Nkrumah as a vain opportunist and playboy, and in 1966 were believed to have been involved in a coup that toppled him from power. for the very few. Its founder Vladimir Lenin did argue in his famous book Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism that imperialism was inherently caused by capitalism, and the inaugural session of the Comintern in 1919 included a declaration of solidarity for "the colonial slaves of Africa and Asia." In 1988 he salvaged what he could in an agreement with the United States, by which all Soviet and Cuban forces would withdraw from the continent, and South Africa pulled out of Namibia, which was granted independence in 1990. Cold War The Soviets hailed Ethiopia for its supposed similar cultural and historical parallels to the USSR. However, these alliances were made primarily because they offered material support to the movement or dominant party in a regime, rather than being based on a clear and consistent acceptance of the guiding ideology of either the Western or Communist partner. The so-called "Casablanca" group (Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Egypt, and Morocco) call themselves "neutralists," but one at least among themGuineahas sought and received bigger and better aid from the East than from the West. [34][35] Around this time, the South African military's Armscor had a team of experts working in Leningrad involved in jet engine development.[36][34]. However, most of its attempts to spread Communism were initially focused on Europe and this did not prevent Lenin and Stalin from trying to force all the former territories of the Russian Empire into the Soviet Union. Fidel Castro sent 300,000 Cuban troops to Africa to support fellow revolutionaries against Western imperialism. Get 6 issues for 19.99 and receive a 10 gift card* PLUS free access to HistoryExtra.com, Save 70% on the shop price when you subscribe today - Get 13 issues for just $49.99 + FREE access to HistoryExtra.com, Snuffed out democracies and poisoned toothpaste: how the Cold War wreaked havoc in post-colonial Africa, Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics and snuffed out many fledgling democracies, The CIA brought dollars - and a hitman with poisoned toothpaste. However, at least up to this moment in history, nowhere in Africa have there been political and economic systems based solely on communist principles, nor has there ever been a strictly working-class revolution. The truth is nuanced. Al Jazeera Centre for Public Liberties & Human Rights. [16], Facing enormous turmoil in the newly independent Republic of the Congo (Lopoldville), Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, the charismatic leader of the Mouvement National Congolais, reacted by calling for assistance from the Soviet Union. "The explosion of African studies in the Soviet Union. End of the World War II. However, the African nationalist movement was led by the better educated young middle-class that had little exposure to communism or socialism. Indeed the Kremlin at first assumed that the Russian model of socialized development would prove attractive to Africans eager to modernize. From the 1960s, cinema was one of the most important aspects of the alliances between Cuba, the USSR and African liberation movements. Many members of the Non-Aligned Movement (which brought together governments and liberation movements from across the Global South) saw both Soviet and Cuban intervention as another form of colonialism, a sentiment echoed in some accounts from Angola at the time. (The analysis of the first wave had taken place fifteen years prior to the publication of this book in the early post-independence period.) In 1989, the Soviet Union cannot face numerous revolts, the Berlin wall is destroyed and Germany is reunited. Instead the Kremlin provided Gizenga with financial aid, and urged its allies to run the blockade and assist Gizenga while avoiding a direct conflict with the West on the issue. [1] It did not appear right for revolution because it was almost entirely controlled by European imperial powers, with the peasantry under the political control of tribal leaders, and low levels of proletarian consciousness in the small working-class. The Soviet Union began to establish left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe, determined to safeguard against a possible renewed threat from Germany. Khrushchev said it was a three-way contest, the third pole being bourgeois nationalist movements that were inherently anti-imperialist and were demanding decolonization across the globe. Africans were losers in the Cold War. In Kenyas villages, for example, young demobbed soldiers expressed their new confidence by scoffing at their chiefs and tribal elders. Available online by subscription. This month, as part of its Red Africa research project, Calvert 22 , a London-based, Russian-financed foundation, presents Things Fall Part, a nostalgic exhibition of various artworks drawing on the legacy of the friendships between Africa, the Soviet Union and related countries during the Cold War. [16], The South African government evoked the term rooi gevaar to refer the political and military threat posed by the Soviet Union's support for the guerrilla wings of anti-apartheid movements such as SWAPO and the ANC. The link was not copied. human resources had been so ruthlessly exploited for the sake of profit India. United Nations (UN) secretary-general Dag Hammarskjld feared the imminent communisation of the Congo, despite the despatch of UN peacekeepers. NATO has renewed itself and re-united The favorite technique therefore was to identify the Soviet Union with the rising tide of nationalism to demonstrate that they in Moscow were engaged in a common struggle against Western imperialism. South Africa, along with Egypt, were the first two countries on the continent to give rise to Communist parties - both in the 1920's. Even though socialist ideas were popular among African intellectuals, the emerging nationalists on the continent felt that these ideas had to somehow be molded to fit the realities of the African condition. After rejecting a Soviet proposal for a four-nation Marxist-Leninist confederation, the Somali government launched an offensive in July 1977 with the intent of capturing Ethiopias Ogaden region, starting the Ogaden War. The 1956 Suez Crisis is widely remembered as a critical event in post-war British history, which helped bring to an end the era of Britain as a global empire and superpower. The conflict showed that both superpowers were wary of using their nuclear weapons against each other for fear of mutual atomic annihilation. Increasingly complex international relationships developed as a result, and smaller countries became more resistant to superpower cajoling. Their main aim was not socialist revolution, but to be free of military aggression from South Africa and see independence with majority rule throughout the continent. Millions died in these proxy wars throughout Africa; food production and distribution were disrupted, and regional famines followed. For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. In February 1989, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Eduard Shevardnadze visited Egypt. It exposes the shortcomings of so-called African socialism in practice. Fear of Communism. under Agostinho Neto and Eduardo dos Santos. The Soviet Navy benefited from its use of Angolan ports to stage exercises. During the 1950s Mau Mau uprising in Kenya, for example, MI5 investigated possible Soviet involvement but, when questioned, bewildered tribesmen asked: What does a Russian look like? and Can Russians speak Swahili? Clearly, the KGB was making little headway in east Africa. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. Afterwards, US secretary of state John Foster Dulles concluded that it was now imperative for America to fill the vacuum of power which the British filled for a century. The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe. Both of these regional conflicts continued into the 1980s. A closer reading of the objects on display, however, reveals a nuanced and conflicted history, the impact of which is still palpable today. ", Guy de Carmoy, "France, Algeria, and the Soviet Penetration in the Mediterranean. The Kremlin supported Gizenga, but did not want to take the international risks involved in delivering material aid to the blockaded Orientale Province. The big question: Is Africa a prisoner of its past? The USSR and Cubas involvement in countries like Angola and Ethiopia has dark episodes too, and has been heavily criticised. United States intervention in Angola was heavily shaped by several factors. In the interwar period (19191939), the Africans who fought against colonial rule, such as the Moroccans, were virtually on their own: they received very little help from abroad. SOVIET SUPPORT The United States, Egypt, Belgium, and France supported Morocco, and Algeria was increasingly identified with the Soviet side of the Cold War. Soon after, Mixinge became one of the tens of thousands of Africans to travel to Cuba for schooling. Once these movements assumed power, they were termed Afro-Marxist regimes (Ottaway and Ottaway 1986, Keller and Rothchild 1987, Munslow 1986). [12] Operating independently from the Kremlin, Fidel Castro turned Algeria into Cuba's first and closest ally in Africa between 1961 and 1965. Both tended to favour ambitious local military men who possessed hard power on the ground. [26], Moscows public embrace of Mengistu troubled Siad Barre's pro-Communist regime in Somalia. former adversaries of the MPLA mainly the USA and China have become the most important trading partners, as Christabelle Peters points out. Please select which sections you would like to print: Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. African Socialism. [2], The Kremlin saw an opportunity, and established four foreign policy goals regarding Africa. Starting then, the Cuban Operation Carlota, to support the MPLA, was to change the course of history in southern Africa. 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