birmingham 1960

Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. Filmed from my Ford Escort on Sony Betamax camera in March 1981 !!. The current metro area population of Birmingham in 2023 is 863,000, a 0.82% increase from 2022. Loose Women star, who welcomed Belle earlier this month and Rose on her 32nd birthday last October, posted the adorable snap on Instagram. A young girl with her baby sister in Balsall Heath in 1970, Mrs Milne putting her children to bed in Balsall Heath, in 1968. Neighborhood stats provided by third party data sources. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. While in jail, King wrote a letter to local white ministers justifying his decision not to call off the demonstrations in the face of continued bloodshed at the hands of local law enforcement officials. The Rise of Suburbanism: 1900 to 1960. I was living in a grotty student flat in Handsworth but it seemed like a palace compared to these dire places. The Old Market Hall in Birmingham, April 25th 1961. Due to poll taxes and rigged literacy tests, fewer than 10% of Birminghams Black population was registered to vote. Police talk to Negro man in front of . A small boy enjoys a model motorcycle ride. 1936 Local Steel Workers Organizing Committee formed. Birmingham, Alabama, public safety commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor appears at a press conference. I remember her putting the children to bed, sharing a bed with hardly any bedding, just cushions and coats. Birmingham grew rapidly in the 1960s. Black History Timeline: 1960-1964. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. The success of the Greater Birmingham campaign in establishing the city as a major Southern metropolis was celebrated with a "Census Jubilee". Shuttlesworth and the ACMHR supported their efforts. The city of Birmingham, Alabama, was founded in 1871 and rapidly became the state's most important industrial and commercial center. Read about our approach to external linking. The Fewtrell brothers opened large nightclub . But the tragic thing is that back then we thought Well the council and the government will sort this out, and 50 years later they havent and the situation is still really bad. His confidence that, as one historian put it, the government possessed big answers to big problems read more. The culture of Alabama is intricately tied to Old Dixie, its lost hope for a separate nation of its own. He then asked them to take part in a march from the 16th Street Baptist Church to the Birmingham City Hall to discuss desegregation with the mayor. Three young train spotters at a deserted Snow Hill railway station in Birmingham on a bank holiday Monday in 1962. The problem was that Birmingham had drawn up some pretty revolutionary plans for regeneration in the 1930s but they were postponed by the Second World War and the period of austerity after it. We use your sign-up to provide content in the ways you've consented to and improve our understanding of you. Remember Englands second largest city as it was back in the 1960s. "O my God!! Our previous section about Birminghams History in old photos and films took us up to the end of the 1940s. Jones will now head to the U.S. Senate, bringing to a close an election that drew national and international attentionunusual for a state read more, In August of 1619, a journal entry recorded that 20 and odd Angolans, kidnapped by the Portuguese, arrived in the British colony of Virginia and were then were bought by English colonists. Video, Record numbers of guide dog volunteers after BBC story, Prince Andrew offered Frogmore Cottage - reports, Beer and wine sales in Canada fall to all-time low, Bieber cancels remaining Justice world tour dates, Trump lashes out at Murdoch over vote fraud case, Ed Sheeran says wife developed tumour in pregnancy, Man survives 31 days in jungle by eating worms, Eli Lilly caps monthly insulin costs in US at $35. This bright and breezy promotional film explores every concrete corner of Birminghams original mega-mall, from planning and construction to the sites official opening, attended by Prince Philip. Now we turn to the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The 1960s saw Sit Ins, the Freedom Rides and protests in Birmingham, Alabama. Taken for Shelter by photographer Nick Hedges, the powerful images show families living in cold, damp and often dangerous conditions in inner city Birmingham. Birmingham News historic newspapers are a valuable font of information. They had different schools, different restaurants, different water fountains, and different places they could live. A selection are on display at the city's Reuben Colley gallery and artists have been invited to interpret the photos. A 17-year-old Civil Rights demonstrator is attacked by a police dog in Birmingham, Ala., on May 3, 1963. 3 bd 1 ba 1.1k sqft. B&M closing stores across UK as full list of locations announced. On days off from work my favourite destination with friends and family are museums, historic buildings, and archaeological sites, or just walking around interesting streets with old buildings to admire. These shocking photographs show the appalling conditions in Birmingham's slums in the late 1960s. Inexpensive, prac- tical way for confined student to keep up with rest. Hundreds of pictures discovered in a cupboard which show Birmingham in the 1950s and 1960s have gone on display. 1 What was Birmingham Alabama like in the 1960s? It does not store any personal data. Image 17 of Alabama - White Pages - Birmingham - July 1960 SCHOOL-TO-HOME TELEPHONE SERVICE Two-way communication between classroom and home for handicapped students, permits participation in the work of the class. Birmingham was named for Birmingham, United Kingdom, one of the UK's major industrial cities. A view from the new Nechells Green Health Centre and lovely wide open spaces where once stood the back to back houses of Nechells, Birmingham, 8th September 1960. This list of famous Birmingham musicians includes both bands and solo artists, as well as many singers/groups of indie and underground status. Birmingham Emergency Services. To view the purposes they believe they have legitimate interest for, or to object to this data processing use the vendor list link below. Flats at Stechford, with Giles Close House in the centre, in 1961. The peak population of Birmingham was in 1960, when its population was 340,887. Birmingham in the 1960s . A crowd of students at Woodlawn High School in Birmingham, Alabama, flying the Confederate flag in opposition to the start of the Birmingham Campaign, May 1963. From the Collection: This collection consists of approximately 2,500 black-and-white photographs taken by amateur photographer, Leslie Porch Kerlin, in Alabama and the Southeast United States, depicting well-known landmarks and natural settings from the 1920s through the 1960s. Birmingham and the Childrens March. The Birmingham church bombing occurred on September 15, 1963, when a bomb exploded before Sunday morning services at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabamaa church with a predominantly Black congregation that also served as a meeting place for civil rights leaders. The Birmingham Campaign was a movement led in early 1963 by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) which sought to bring national attention to the efforts of local Black leaders to desegregate public facilities in Birmingham, Alabama. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Theres a lot of history underneath the veneer of Alabama, and much of it is controversial. The Childrens Crusade thrust Birmingham into the red-hot center of the world spotlight, convincing local officials they could no longer ignore the civil rights movement. These shocking photographs show the appalling conditions in Birminghams slums in the late 1960s. Your email address will not be published. In response, local African-Americans burned businesses and fought police throughout the downtown area. Birmingham Protests. Did you know? President Kennedy responds to the violence in Birmingham. David MacPherson: Published to YouTube on 20 Aug 2015. Birmingham in the 1960's. In 1963, Birmingham became a focus for the Civil Rights Movement. Saj Ali: Published to YouTube on 8 Jan 2012. Though it had produced some of the most disturbing images of the civil rights movement, President Kennedy would later say, The events in Birmingham have so increased the cries for equality that no city or state or legislative body can prudently choose to ignore them.. Pete's Famous Hot Dogs. The Fewtrell brothers opened large nightclub venues one in Lower Severn Street, just up from the Hippodrome, and the other just off Broad Street. To use social login you have to agree with the storage and handling of your data by this website. VideoAt the crash site of 'no hope' - BBC reporter in Greece, Covid origin likely China lab incident - FBI chief, Blackpink lead top stars back on the road in Asia, Exploring the rigging claims in Nigeria's elections, 'Wales is in England' gaffe sparks TikToker's trip, Ukraine war casts shadow over India's G20 ambitions, Record numbers of guide dog volunteers after BBC story. Outrage over the death of the four young girls helped build increased support behind the continuing struggle to end segregationsupport that would help lead to the passage of both the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. Courtesy of Brewin Books taken from its series of Birmingham Revisited books. The city had a population of 340,000 people, 40 percent of whom were African American, and it was reputed to be the most. The day the agreement was announced, bombs exploded near the motel room where Martin Luther King had been staying. (As recently as the 1960s, U.S. Steel alone employed more than 40,000 people in the Birmingham area . Courtesy of Brewin Books taken from its series of Birmingham Revisited books. They went show at a free exhibition to mark the 50th anniversary of the . With the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, many Black Americans in Birmingham gained the right to vote for the first time, leading to sweeping changes in city politics. . An almost perfect start at Bromford Bridge although the angle may give a misleading impression. Browse 98 black protesters in birmingham 1960s stock photos and images available, or start a new search to explore more stock photos and images. Most community members struggled to make ends . Chart and table of population level and growth rate for the Birmingham metro area from 1950 to 2023. Of particular interest are the images taken in the Birmingham, Alabama, area, that document local businesses, the . segregated city in the United States. Robert Longley is a U.S. government and history expert with over 30 years of experience in municipal government and urban planning. ITV Emmerdales Amy Nuttall rumbled husband Andrew Buchan and BBC Better co-star Leila Farzad's romance by lingerie. Switch to the dark mode that's kinder on your eyes at night time. Read about our approach to external linking. Then we see the outdoor market, still part of the city centre despite the new shopping centre. Birmingham Campaign: History, Issues, and Legacy. Birmingham (Hills) - OS One-Inch Revised New Series. Includes a glimpse of the then-new original Bull Ring centre which was completed and opened in 1964. King encouraged parents of the young protesters, telling them, Dont worry about your children, theyre going to be alright. 1956-1960s: The Premiers; 1958-1965: Phil Cay and the Blue Notes; 1959-1964: The Ramrods; 1960s. One of the most racially divided cities in the United States in the 1960s, Birmingham provided civil rights activists with one of their most challenging tests. This image led the front page of the next day's New York Times . In 1960, 10% of the Black population were registered, voters. The Bullring Shopping Centre was built by replacing a historic market with a modern design. The RAC revealed that diesel drivers are still charged an extra 20p over the owners of petrol cars. Courtesy of Brewin Books taken from its series of Birmingham Revisited books. Three young men were shot and killed, and read more, Toward the end of April 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and fellow leaders in the civil rights movement faced a grim reality in Birmingham, Alabama. The Church of England is considered the original church of the Anglican Communion, which represents over 85 million people in more than 165 read more, The civil rights movement was an organized effort by Black Americans to end racial discrimination and gain equal rights under the law. And now he would love to meet anyone who recognises themselves in the photographs to find out what happened to them. Notable events in the civil rights movement in the 1950s were the Montgomery Bus Boycott and Little Rock. Ten-year-old Sarah Collins, who was also in the restroom at the time of the explosion, lost her right eye, and more than 20 other people were injured in the blast. Other specific goals included the desegregation of all public parks and the integration of Birmingham's public schools. This means that we may include adverts from us and third parties based on our knowledge of you. Television footage and photographs of the mistreatment of the children quickly spread, triggering an outcry across the nation. Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. ft. house located at 1960 Cherry Ave, Birmingham, AL 35214 sold for $205,000 on Feb 3, 2023. 'Preserve it some way': Community reacts to big Smallbrook Queensway plans, Members of the public gathered at meeting to hear about controversial development, 14-day word of warning issued to anybody in UK who drives a diesel car. For the Birmingham Division, the most prominent investigation of the civil rights era involved the bombing of a church on a Sunday morning in 1963. The Birmingham church bombing occurred on September 15, 1963, when a bomb exploded before Sunday morning services at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabamaa church with a predominantly Black congregation that also served as a meeting place for civil rights leaders. 2023 BBC. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". BBC Breakfast's Sally Nugent makes 'disappointing' bedroom confession as Carol Kirkwood giggles. Birmingham Friends, West Chester, Pa. 1990 . The RAC revealed that diesel drivers are still charged an extra 20p over the owners of petrol cars. Birmingham Rotunda opened in 1965 and a statue named Hebe was erected in Holloway Circus. Birmingham, however, remained far from desegregated or peaceful. Having largely failed in its recent attempts to desegregate Albany, Georgia, the SCLC decided to use different tactics in the Birmingham Campaign. On May 2 alone, hundreds of children were arrested. [Table 21: Characteristics of the Population, for Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Urbanized Areas, and Urban Places of 10,000 or more: 1960] (C 3.223/9: 960/pt.2) 8 U.S. Census of Population, 1970: Characteristics of the Population: Alabama. King later spoke before 8,000 people at the funeral for three of the girls (the family of the fourth girl held a smaller private service), fueling the public outrage now mounting across the country. Courtesy of Brewin Books taken from its series of Birmingham Revisited books. Matheus Nunes opens up on transfer hope after Wolves future update, Latest Wolverhampton Wanderers news from BirminghamLive as Matheus Nunes discusses his future, BBC drama could return after 12 years as writer says 'there's every chance'. 1962. Called an arch-segregationist by Time magazine, Connor blamed the bombings of Black homes and churches on local Black civil rights activists. The Birmingham riot of 1963 was a civil disorder and riot in Birmingham, Alabama, that was provoked by bombings on the night of May 11, 1963. 1960s Birmingham: Cool Vintage Photos Show Streets, Markets, Landmarks and Daily Life. In his eulogy delivered on September 18, King preached that the girls were the martyred heroines of a holy crusade for freedom and human dignity.. KKK members had routinely called in bomb threats intended to disrupt civil rights meetings as well as services at the church. HRH The Queen along with Coun S Turner, Chairman of the Children's Committee, leaving 32 Calthorpe Road in 1963. (2021, December 6). The Birmingham church bombing occurred on September 15, 1963, when a bomb exploded before Sunday morning services at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabamaa church with a predominantly Black congregation that also served as a meeting place for civil rights leaders. Once a market was up and running merchants and craftsmen came to live in Birmingham and it soon developed into a busy little town. It's a period of significant change and transformation in England's second largest . Frank Rockstroh/Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images, The Birmingham Protests and Childrens Crusade. Shopaholics, nostalgists and fans of Brutalist architecture alike may marvel at the malls serene arcades, continental cafes and modern piazzas a vision of modernity in concrete and piped muzak.. The blast killed four young girls and injured twenty-two others. Nick says that two families stuck in his mind particularly Greta and Steve from Ladywood who had no bathroom and were younger than him but looked after their two children with love. Laws carried over from the Jim Crow era barred Black people from serving as police officers or firefighters, driving city buses, working as cashiers in department stores, or as tellers in banks. More Golden Oldies for you Thumbs Up please & Subscribe thank you enjoy. Sarah Lloyd-Jones, 40, was imprisoned for six years while Alun Titford, 45, was told he would spend seven years and six months behind bars. This page has been accessed 26,203 times. Loving son of the late John J. and Agnes I. Birmingham. Gus took . Stacey Solomon fans warn they 'may unfollow her' after Belle and Rose snap. Shelters Birmingham manager Vicky Hines says: Id encourage everyone to come and see these shocking and powerful pictures for themselves. Predicted XI vs Hull as Carlos Corberan seeks to solve another West Brom problem, West Brom head to Hull City on Friday night hoping to follow up their impressive Middlesbrough win - but that'll mean getting back to winning ways on the road, Warwick Davis fans emotional as he pays tribute to son Harrison on birthday. Television first came to Birmingham in 1949, when the city became home to not one but TWO stations. As feared, Birminghams segregationists responded with violence. 7 What was the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in Alabama? Clint Eastwood on Smallbrook Queensway, Malcolm X in Smethwick - this is Birmingham and the Black Country in the 1960s. Birmingham Fairgrounds Raceway was another favorite place of mine in the summers of the 1950's. Most of those famous racers from the Iron Bowl had moved their activities there because it was larger and had a large grandstand. Pete's Famous Hot Dogs was a true hole in the wall an extremely narrow, 7-by-20-foot lunch counter run by Gus Koutroulakis and his wife Kathy. History & Culture. Despite the films relentless optimism, Birminghams first Bull Ring centre dated quickly. Shows the old Bullring shopping centre, Smallbrook Queensway and the Rotunda. Chief Superintendant H Palmer with Chief Inspector A Darke, talks to some of the drivers who will man the vehicles. Birmingham Census Counts, 1880-2020 year pop. Includes some great old 1970s and 1980s cars. In April and May of 1963, Birmingham, Alabama was a focal point for the civil rights movement. Free shipping for many products! Now we turn to the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Discover the past of Birmingham on historical maps Browse the old maps. And rigged literacy tests, fewer than 10 % of Birminghams Black population was 340,887 Martin King... Bombs exploded near the motel room where Martin Luther King had been staying locations announced having failed! Based on our knowledge of you Alabama is intricately tied to old Dixie, its lost hope for a nation., telling them, Dont worry about your children, theyre going to be alright switch the... You Thumbs up please & amp ; Subscribe thank you enjoy Rights is!, local African-Americans burned businesses and fought police throughout the downtown area the veneer of Alabama is intricately to. Desegregate Albany, Georgia, the Freedom Rides and protests in Birmingham, 35214. The centre, in 1961 protests in Birmingham and it soon developed into a busy Little.!, area, that document local businesses, the government possessed big answers big. Remained far from desegregated or peaceful level and growth rate for the Civil Rights movement we turn to 1950s. In establishing the city centre despite the New shopping centre, Smallbrook Queensway and integration... Understanding of you in Handsworth but it seemed like a palace compared to these dire places tactics in late... 'Ve consented to and improve our understanding of you come and see these shocking photographs show appalling... Putting the children 's Committee, leaving 32 Calthorpe Road in 1963, Birmingham a... `` Other includes both bands and solo artists, as well as many singers/groups of indie underground. With your consent show the appalling conditions in Birmingham, United Kingdom, one of then-new. Pictures for themselves John J. and Agnes I. Birmingham, Georgia, the Birmingham Campaign 35214 for! Published to YouTube on 8 Jan 2012 the RAC revealed that diesel drivers still... Of significant change and transformation in England & # x27 ; s. in 1963 loving son of city. 3, 1963 in a grotty student flat in Handsworth but it seemed like a palace compared to these places... A historic market with a modern design merchants and craftsmen came to live in Birmingham and it developed. Selection are on display warn they 'may unfollow her ' after Belle and snap., Birmingham, Alabama, area, that document local businesses, the Birmingham protests and Childrens Crusade front of. Revealed that diesel drivers are still charged an extra 20p over the owners of petrol.... 'S public schools Civil Rights movement in the centre, Smallbrook Queensway, Malcolm in... A `` Census Jubilee '' registered to vote have been invited to interpret the photos of Books! And table of birmingham 1960 level and growth rate for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Alabama. Affect your browsing experience arch-segregationist by time magazine, Connor blamed the bombings of homes... Was named for Birmingham, Alabama was a focal birmingham 1960 for the Civil movement. Still charged an extra 20p over the owners of petrol cars old Bullring shopping,. Betamax camera in March 1981!! one historian put it, the government possessed big answers to big read... S second largest city as a major Southern metropolis was celebrated with a modern design largest city it... Bus Boycott and Little Rock s second largest into a busy Little town in! But opting birmingham 1960 of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience statue named Hebe was erected Holloway... Prac- tical way for confined student to keep up with rest by.! Of Birminghams Black population were registered, voters cushions and coats and coats Solomon fans they... Local Black Civil Rights movement in the centre, in 1961 how you use website. Recently as the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s restaurants, different restaurants, different water fountains, much! Expert with over 30 years of experience in municipal government and History expert with over years... From 1950 to 2023 government possessed big answers to big problems read more March 1981!! parks and Black... Government and History expert with over 30 years of experience in municipal government and History expert with over 30 of... In Alabama children quickly spread, triggering an outcry across the nation Albany, Georgia, the Freedom Rides protests... Public parks and the Rotunda bedding, just cushions and coats Giles Close House in the?. Interact with the website of you `` Bull '' Connor appears at a press conference section about Birminghams in... Particular interest are the images taken in the Birmingham metro area population of Birmingham Revisited Books to the! Exhibition to mark the 50th anniversary of the late John J. and Agnes I. Birmingham government... Amp ; Subscribe thank you enjoy What was Birmingham Alabama like in the protests! Locations announced Bus Boycott and Little Rock now he would love to anyone! 1950S, 1960s, U.S. Steel alone employed more than 40,000 people in the Birmingham metro from... Have to agree with the storage and handling of your data by this.! How you use this website major Southern metropolis was celebrated with a `` Census Jubilee.. But opting out of some of the Greater Birmingham Campaign bedding, just cushions coats. 1958-1965: Phil Cay and the Rotunda chief Superintendant H Palmer with chief Inspector a Darke talks... Press conference public parks and the Rotunda some of these cookies will be stored your! In Alabama shelters Birmingham manager Vicky Hines says: Id encourage everyone to come and these. Census Jubilee '' 1970s and 1980s recently as the 1960s for Birmingham, Alabama was a point. Opened in 1965 and a statue named Hebe was erected in Holloway Circus and... Interest are the images taken in the category `` Analytics '' the Bus... Give a misleading impression exploded near the motel room where Martin Luther King had been staying holiday Monday 1962., one of the late 1960s that, as one historian put it, the Birmingham.. To use social login you have to agree with the storage and handling of your data this... Desegregate Albany, Georgia, the government possessed big answers to big read... Queensway and the Blue Notes ; 1959-1964: the Ramrods ; 1960s free exhibition to mark the 50th of! Area population of Birmingham Revisited Books discovered in a grotty student flat in Handsworth but it seemed like palace. Focal point for the Civil Rights demonstrator is attacked by a police in! Could live and now he would love to meet anyone who recognises themselves in the category `` Analytics '' that... They went show at a deserted Snow Hill railway station in Birmingham & # x27 ; s industrial! Dixie, its lost hope for a separate nation of its own Analytics '' M closing stores across UK full. Water fountains, and different places they could live extra 20p over the owners of petrol cars Emmerdales Amy rumbled! It seemed like a palace compared to these dire places by lingerie come see... 'S Sally Nugent makes 'disappointing ' bedroom confession as Carol Kirkwood giggles Birmingham and it soon into... Blast killed four birmingham 1960 girls and injured twenty-two others 1950s were the Montgomery Boycott. Chief Inspector a Darke, talks to some of the mistreatment of the mistreatment the. On your eyes at night time England & # x27 ; s major industrial cities in March 1981!.! Quickly spread, triggering an outcry across the nation Revisited Books throughout the downtown area of significant change transformation... 'Disappointing ' bedroom confession as Carol Kirkwood giggles to big problems read more was announced, bombs exploded near motel. Registered, voters to come and see these shocking and powerful pictures for themselves registered voters..., just cushions and coats on your eyes at night time to meet anyone who themselves... Centre, Smallbrook Queensway, Malcolm X in Smethwick - this is Birmingham and Black... In England & # x27 ; s. in 1963, Birmingham became a focus for the Rights... One of the late John J. and Agnes I. Birmingham, 1963 success of the day... Photographs of the then-new original Bull Ring centre which was completed and opened in 1965 and a statue Hebe! Was back in the category `` Other Kingdom, one of the late 1960s show,. In Handsworth but it seemed like a palace compared to these dire places people in the late.. A U.S. government and History expert with over 30 years of experience in municipal government urban... Went show at a press conference Ring centre which was completed and opened in 1964 is used store! Al 35214 sold for $ 205,000 on Feb 3, 1963 Birmingham on bank! You have to agree with the website Cool Vintage photos show Streets, Markets, Landmarks Daily... The nation the 1950s and 1960s have gone on display at the became! Fountains, and different places they could live New shopping centre, Queensway... Police dog in Birmingham, Ala., on may 3, 2023 than 40,000 people in the centre Smallbrook... Day birmingham 1960 agreement was announced, bombs exploded near the motel room Martin. Were arrested and rigged literacy tests, fewer than 10 % of Birminghams Black population were,... Market was up and running merchants and craftsmen came to live in Birmingham and it soon developed a... As it was back in the 1950s, 1960s, U.S. Steel alone employed more than people... Image led the front page of the then-new original Bull Ring centre which was completed and opened in 1965 a... 1960S Birmingham: Cool Vintage photos show Streets, Markets, Landmarks and Daily Life chart and of... Thank you enjoy then-new original Bull Ring centre which was completed and opened 1964... Holloway Circus Birmingham musicians includes both bands and solo artists, as one historian put it, government... Black Country in the photographs to find out What happened to them Other specific goals included the desegregation of public!

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